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US Supreme Court: 1st Amendment Shields Westboro Baptist Church - The Decision as Text - Updated
Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 12:36 PM EST

The US Supreme Court has just ruled [PDF] that the First Amendment shields Westboro Baptist Church from tort liability for picketing at military funerals. The case centered on whether the "speech is of public or private concern, as determined by all the circumstances of the case." The court held that it was public speech, and hence protected. Because it's a controversial case, and the opinion is a narrow one with a vigorous dissenting opinion by Judge Samuel Alito, I thought it would be useful to do a text version for you so you can understand the nuances. There's a court hearing in the SCO bankruptcy later today, but this will give you something to think about while we wait to hear what happened there.

Here's the heart of what the court ruled:
Westboro addressed matters of public import on public property, in a peaceful manner, in full compliance with the guidance of local officials. It did not disrupt Mathew Snyder's funeral, and its choice to picket at that time and place did not alter the nature of its speech. Because this Nation has chosen to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that public debate is not stifled, Westboro must be shielded from tort liability for its picketing in this case....

The First Amendment reflects "a profound national commitment to the principle that debate on public issues should be uninhibited, robust, and wide-open." New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U. S. 254, 270 (1964). That is because "speech concerning public affairs is more than self-expression; it is the essence of self-government." Garrison v. Louisiana, 379 U. S. 64, 7475 (1964). Accordingly, "speech on public issues occupies the highest rung of the hierarchy of First Amendment values, and is entitled to special protection." Connick v. Myers, 461 U. S. 138, 145 (1983) (internal quotation marks omitted)....

Westboro's choice to convey its views in conjunction with Matthew Snyder's funeral made the expression of those views particularly hurtful to many, especially to Matthew's father. The record makes clear that the applicable legal term--"emotional distress"--fails to capture fully the anguish Westboro's choice added to Mr. Snyder's already incalculable grief. But Westboro conducted its picketing peacefully on matters of public concern at a public place adjacent to a public street. Such space occupies a "special position in terms of First Amendment protection." United States v. Grace, 461 U. S. 171, 180 (1983)....Simply put, the church members had the right to be where they were....Given that Westboro's speech was at a public place on a matter of public concern, that speech is entitled to "special protection" under the First Amendment. Such speech cannot be restricted simply because it is upsetting or arouses contempt. "If there is a bedrock principle underlying the First Amendment, it is that the government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea itself offensive or disagreeable." Texas v. Johnson, 491 U. S. 397, 414 (1989)....

Speech is powerful. It can stir people to action, move them to tears of both joy and sorrow, and--as it did here-- inflict great pain. On the facts before us, we cannot react to that pain by punishing the speaker. As a Nation we have chosen a different course--to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that we do not stifle public debate. That choice requires that we shield Westboro from tort liability for its picketing in this case.

In America, the court is saying, then, you are allowed to peacefully protest on public land, subject to content-neutral regulations on time and place, and speak your piece without having to pay damages or be in danger of being mowed down by machine guns, even if most people watching hate you and your message. There are people in this world wishing they had that freedom at the moment, wishing for it enough that they are willing to die for it.

Judge Samuel Alito strongly dissented, however, viewing the speech as so hurtful to a private individual that society ought to punish it:

Our profound national commitment to free and open debate is not a license for the vicious verbal assault that occurred in this case....

(“[P]ersonal abuse is not in any proper sense communication of information or opinion safeguarded by the Constitution”). When grave injury is intentionally inflicted by means of an attack like the one at issue here, the First Amendment should not interfere with recovery....

In light of this evidence, it is abundantly clear that respondents, going far beyond commentary on matters of public concern, specifically attacked Matthew Snyder because (1) he was a Catholic and (2) he was a member of the United States military. Both Matthew and petitioner were private figures, and this attack was not speech on a matter of public concern. While commentary on the Catholic Church or the United States military constitutes speech on matters of public concern, speech regarding Matthew Snyder's purely private conduct does not....

If the First Amendment permits the States to protect their residents from the harm inflicted by such attacks--and the Court does not hold otherwise--then the location of the tort should not be dispositive. A physical assault may occur without trespassing; it is no defense that the perpetrator had "the right to be where [he was]."...And the same should be true with respect to unprotected speech. Neither classic "fighting words" nor defamatory statements are immunized when they occur in a public place, and there is no good reason to treat a verbal assault based on the conduct or character of a private figure like Matthew Snyder any differently....

Exploitation of a funeral for the purpose of attracting public attention "intrud[es] upon their . . . grief," ibid., and may permanently stain their memories of the final moments before a loved one is laid to rest. Allowing family members to have a few hours of peace without harassment does not undermine public debate. I would therefore hold that, in this setting, the First Amendment permits a private figure to recover for the intentional infliction of emotional distress caused by speech on a matter of private concern.

If you were hoping someone would tell this group that they go beyond the bounds of decency, Judge Alito does so with gusto.

Justice Stephen Breyer wrote a concurring opinion, in which he points out that the state is not powerless to protect individuals from harmful speech in all circumstances:

The dissent requires us to ask whether our holding unreasonably limits liability for intentional infliction of emotional distress--to the point where A (in order to draw attention to his views on a public matter) might launch a verbal assault upon B, a private person, publicly revealing the most intimate details of B's private life, while knowing that the revelation will cause B severe emotional harm. Does our decision leave the State powerless to protect the individual against invasions of, e.g., personal privacy, even in the most horrendous of such circumstances?

That review makes clear that Westboro's means of communicating its views consisted of picketing in a place where picketing was lawful and in compliance with all police directions. The picketing could not be seen or heard from the funeral ceremony itself. And Snyder testified that he saw no more than the tops of the picketers' signs as he drove to the funeral. To uphold the application of state law in these circumstances would punish Westboro for seeking to communicate its views on matters of public concern without proportionately advancing the State's interest in protecting its citizens against severe emotional harm. Consequently, the First Amendment protects Westboro. As I read the Court's opinion, it holds no more.

In other words, he's pointing out that there is still a line, and that while in the facts of this case, it has to be allowed, no one should take the narrow opinion of this case as a license for any and all personally hurtful speech. That remains actionable.

You can follow along with which is which by the header on each page. Because it's an important decision, and a quintessentially American one, I've prepared a text version for you.

Update: It occurs to me you might find the oral argument in this case helpful in understanding the opinion. The transcript is at that link also. The merits briefs and amici are here. Respondent Fred Phelps' daughter, Margie J. Phelps, is a lawyer, and she represented him, her family, and the church.

It also seems like a good idea to put links to each section of the opinion.

Syllabus ]  [ Opinion ]  [ Breyer ]  [ Alito ] 

***************************

(Slip Opinion)

Syllabus

NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued. The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

Syllabus

SNYDER v. PHELPS ET AL.

CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR
THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

No. 09751. Argued October 6, 2010--Decided March 2, 2011

For the past 20 years, the congregation of the Westboro Baptist Church has picketed military funerals to communicate its belief that God hates the United States for its tolerance of homosexuality, particularly in America's military. The church's picketing has also condemned the Catholic Church for scandals involving its clergy. Fred Phelps, who founded the church, and six Westboro Baptist parishioners (all relatives of Phelps) traveled to Maryland to picket the funeral of Marine Lance Corporal Matthew Snyder, who was killed in Iraq in the line of duty. The picketing took place on public land approximately 1,000 feet from the church where the funeral was held, in accordance with guidance from local law enforcement officers. The picketers peacefully displayed their signs--stating, e.g., "Thank God for Dead Soldiers," "Fags Doom Nations," "America is Doomed," "Priests Rape Boys," and "You're Going to Hell"--for about 30 minutes before the funeral began. Matthew Snyder's father (Snyder), petitioner here, saw the tops of the picketers' signs when driving to the funeral, but did not learn what was written on the signs until watching a news broadcast later that night.

Snyder filed a diversity action against Phelps, his daughters--who participated in the picketing--and the church (collectively Westboro) alleging, as relevant here, state tort claims of intentional infliction of emotional distress, intrusion upon seclusion, and civil conspiracy. A jury held Westboro liable for millions of dollars in compensatory and punitive damages. Westboro challenged the verdict as grossly excessive and sought judgment as a matter of law on the ground that the First Amendment fully protected its speech. The District Court reduced the punitive damages award, but left the verdict otherwise itact. The Fourth Circuit reversed, concluding that Westboro's state-

Syllabus

ments were entitled to First Amendment protection because those statements were on matters of public concern, were not provably false, and were expressed solely through hyperbolic rhetoric.

Held: The First Amendment shields Westboro from tort liability for its picketing in this case. Pp. 5-15.

(a) The Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment can serve as a defense in state tort suits, including suits for intentional infliction of emotional distress. Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U. S. 46, 50-51. Whether the First Amendment prohibits holding Westboro liable for its speech in this case turns largely on whether that speech is of public or private concern, as determined by all the circumstances of the case. "[S]peech on public issues occupies the '"highest rung of the hierarchy of First Amendment values"' and is entitled to special protection." Connick v. Myers, 461 U. S. 138, 145. Although the boundaries of what constitutes speech on matters of public concern are not well defined, this Court has said that speech is of public concern when it can "be fairly considered as relating to any matter of political, social, or other concern to the community," id., at 146, or when it "is a subject of general interest and of value and concern to the public," San Diego v. Roe, 543 U. S. 77, 8384. A statement's arguably "inappropriate or controversial character . . . is irrelevant to the question whether it deals with a matter of public concern." Rankin v. McPherson, 483 U. S. 378, 387. Pp. 5-7.

To determine whether speech is of public or private concern, this Court must independently examine the "'content, form, and context,'" of the speech "'as revealed by the whole record.'" Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc., 472 U. S. 749, 761. In considering content, form, and context, no factor is dispositive, and it is necessary to evaluate all aspects of the speech. Pp. 7-8.

The "content" of Westboro's signs plainly relates to public, rather than private, matters. The placards highlighted issues of public import--the political and moral conduct of the United States and its citizens, the fate of the Nation, homosexuality in the military, and scandals involving the Catholic clergy--and Westboro conveyed its views on those issues in a manner designed to reach as broad a public audience as possible. Even if a few of the signs were viewed as containing messages related to a particular individual, that would not change the fact that the dominant theme of Westboro's demonstration spoke to broader public issues. P. 8.

The "context" of the speech--its connection with Matthew Snyder's funeral--cannot by itself transform the nature of Westboro's speech. The signs reflected Westboro's condemnation of much in modern society, and it cannot be argued that Westboro's use of speech on public issues was in any way contrived to insulate a personal attack on

2

Syllabus

Snyder from liability. Westboro had been actively engaged in speaking on the subjects addressed in its picketing long before it became aware of Matthew Snyder, and there can be no serious claim that the picketing did not represent Westboro's honestly held beliefs on public issues. Westboro may have chosen the picket location to increase publicity for its views, and its speech may have been particularly hurtful to Snyder. That does not mean that its speech should be afforded less than full First Amendment protection under the circumstances of this case. Pp. 8-10.

That said, "'[e]ven protected speech is not equally permissible in all places and at all times.'" Frisby v. Schultz, 487 U. S. 474, 479. Westboro's choice of where and when to conduct its picketing is not beyond the Government's regulatory reach--it is "subject to reasonable time, place, or manner restrictions." Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence, 468 U. S. 288, 293. The facts here are quite different, however, both with respect to the activity being regulated and the means of restricting those activities, from the few limited situations where the Court has concluded that the location of targeted picketing can be properly regulated under provisions deemed content neutral. Frisby, supra, at 477; Madsen v. Women's Health Center, Inc., 512 U. S. 753, 768, distinguished. Maryland now has a law restricting funeral picketing but that law was not in effect at the time of these events, so this Court has no occasion to consider whether that law is a "reasonable time, place, or manner restrictio[n]" under the standards announced by this Court. Clark, supra, at 293. Pp. 10-12.

The "special protection" afforded to what Westboro said, in the whole context of how and where it chose to say it, cannot be overcome by a jury finding that the picketing was "outrageous" for purposes of applying the state law tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress. That would pose too great a danger that the jury would punish Westboro for its views on matters of public concern. For all these reasons, the jury verdict imposing tort liability on Westboro for intentional infliction of emotional distress must be set aside. Pp. 12-13.

(b) Snyder also may not recover for the tort of intrusion upon seclusion. He argues that he was a member of a captive audience at his son's funeral, but the captive audience doctrine--which has been applied sparingly, see Rowan v. Post Office Dept., 397 U. S. 728, 736 738; Frisby, supra, at 484485--should not be expanded to the circumstances here. Westboro stayed well away from the memorial service, Snyder could see no more than the tops of the picketers' signs, and there is no indication that the picketing interfered with the funeral service itself. Pp. 13-14.

(c) Because the First Amendment bars Snyder from recovery for in-

3

Opinion of the Court

tentional infliction of emotional distress or intrusion upon seclusion--the allegedly unlawful activity Westboro conspired to accomplish--Snyder also cannot recover for civil conspiracy based on those torts. P. 14.

(d) Westboro addressed matters of public import on public property, in a peaceful manner, in full compliance with the guidance of local officials. It did not disrupt Mathew Snyder's funeral, and its choice to picket at that time and place did not alter the nature of its speech. Because this Nation has chosen to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that public debate is not stifled, Westboro must be shielded from tort liability for its picketing in this case. Pp. 14-15. 580 F. 3d 206, affirmed.

ROBERTS, C. J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which SCALIA, KENNEDY, THOMAS, GINSBURG, BREYER, SOTOMAYOR, and KAGAN, JJ., joined. BREYER, J., filed a concurring opinion. ALITO, J., filed a dissenting opinion.

4

Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011)


back to top ]

Opinion of the Court

NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the preliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested to notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Wash- ington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in order that corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 09751

_________________

ALBERT SNYDER, PETITIONER v. FRED W.
PHELPS, SR., ET AL.

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF
APPEALS FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

[March 2, 2011]

CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS delivered the opinion of the Court.

A jury held members of the Westboro Baptist Church liable for millions of dollars in damages for picketing near a soldier's funeral service. The picket signs reflected the church's view that the United States is overly tolerant of sin and that God kills American soldiers as punishment. The question presented is whether the First Amendment shields the church members from tort liability for their speech in this case.

I

A

Fred Phelps founded the Westboro Baptist Church in Topeka, Kansas, in 1955. The church's congregation believes that God hates and punishes the United States for its tolerance of homosexuality, particularly in America's military. The church frequently communicates its views by picketing, often at military funerals. In the more than 20 years that the members of Westboro Baptist have publicized their message, they have picketed nearly 600 funerals. Brief for Rutherford Institute as Amicus Curiae 7, n. 14.

Marine Lance Corporal Matthew Snyder was killed in Iraq in the line of duty. Lance Corporal Snyder's father selected the Catholic church in the Snyders' hometown of Westminster, Maryland, as the site for his son's funeral. Local newspapers provided notice of the time and location of the service.

Phelps became aware of Matthew Snyder's funeral and decided to travel to Maryland with six other Westboro Baptist parishioners (two of his daughters and four of his grandchildren) to picket. On the day of the memorial service, the Westboro congregation members picketed on public land adjacent to public streets near the Maryland State House, the United States Naval Academy, and Matthew Snyder's funeral. The Westboro picketers carried signs that were largely the same at all three locations. They stated, for instance: "God Hates the USA/Thank God for 9/11," "America is Doomed," "Don't Pray for the USA," "Thank God for IEDs," "Thank God for Dead Soldiers," "Pope in Hell," "Priests Rape Boys," "God Hates Fags," "You're Going to Hell," and "God Hates You."

The church had notified the authorities in advance of its intent to picket at the time of the funeral, and the picketers complied with police instructions in staging their demonstration. The picketing took place within a 10- by -25-foot plot of public land adjacent to a public street, behind a temporary fence. App. to Brief for Appellants in No. 081026 (CA4), pp. 22822285 (hereinafter App.). That plot was approximately 1,000 feet from the church where the funeral was held. Several buildings separated the picket site from the church. Id., at 3758. The Westboro picketers displayed their signs for about 30 minutes before the funeral began and sang hymns and recited Bible verses. None of the picketers entered church property or went to the cemetery. They did not yell or use profanity, and there was no violence associated with the picketing. Id., at 2168, 2371, 2286, 2293.

2

Opinion of the Court

The funeral procession passed within 200 to 300 feet of the picket site. Although Snyder testified that he could see the tops of the picket signs as he drove to the funeral, he did not see what was written on the signs until later that night, while watching a news broadcast covering the event. Id., at 20842086. 1

B

Snyder filed suit against Phelps, Phelps's daughters, and the Westboro Baptist Church (collectively Westboro or the church) in the United States District Court for the District of Maryland under that court's diversity jurisdiction. Snyder alleged five state tort law claims: defamation, publicity given to private life, intentional infliction of emotional distress, intrusion upon seclusion, and civil conspiracy. Westboro moved for summary judgment contending, in part, that the church's speech was insulated from liability by the First Amendment. See 533 F. Supp. 2d 567, 570 (Md. 2008).

3

Opinion of the Court

The District Court awarded Westboro summary judgment on Snyder's claims for defamation and publicity given to private life, concluding that Snyder could not prove the necessary elements of those torts. Id., at 572 573. A trial was held on the remaining claims. At trial, Snyder described the severity of his emotional injuries. He testified that he is unable to separate the thought of his dead son from his thoughts of Westboro's picketing, and that he often becomes tearful, angry, and physically ill when he thinks about it. Id., at 588589. Expert witnesses testified that Snyder's emotional anguish had resulted in severe depression and had exacerbated preexisting health conditions.

A jury found for Snyder on the intentional infliction of emotional distress, intrusion upon seclusion, and civil conspiracy claims, and held Westboro liable for $2.9 million in compensatory damages and $8 million in punitive damages. Westboro filed several post-trial motions, including a motion contending that the jury verdict was grossly excessive and a motion seeking judgment as a matter of law on all claims on First Amendment grounds. The District Court remitted the punitive damages award to $2.1 million, but left the jury verdict otherwise intact. Id., at 597.

In the Court of Appeals, Westboro's primary argument was that the church was entitled to judgment as a matter of law because the First Amendment fully protected Westboro's speech. The Court of Appeals agreed. 580 F. 3d 206, 221 (CA4 2009). The court reviewed the picket signs and concluded that Westboro's statements were entitled to First Amendment protection because those statements were on matters of public concern, were not provably false, and were expressed solely through hyperbolic rhetoric. Id., at 222224.2

4

Opinion of the Court

We granted certiorari. 559 U. S. ___ (2010).

II

To succeed on a claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress in Maryland, a plaintiff must demonstrate that the defendant intentionally or recklessly engaged in extreme and outrageous conduct that caused the plaintiff to suffer severe emotional distress. See Harris v. Jones, 281 Md. 560, 565566, 380 A. 2d 611, 614 (1977). The Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment--"Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech"-- can serve as a defense in state tort suits, including suits for intentional infliction of emotional distress. See, e.g., Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U. S. 46, 5051 (1988).3

Whether the First Amendment prohibits holding Westboro liable for its speech in this case turns largely on whether that speech is of public or private concern, as determined by all the circumstances of the case. "[S]peech on 'matters of public concern' . . . is 'at the heart of the First Amendment's protection.'" Dun & Bradstreet, Inc. v. Greenmoss Builders, Inc., 472 U. S. 749, 758759 (1985) (opinion of Powell, J.) (quoting First Nat. Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, 435 U. S. 765, 776 (1978)). The First Amendment reflects "a profound national commitment to the

5

Opinion of the Court principle that debate on public issues should be uninhibited, robust, and wide-open." New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U. S. 254, 270 (1964). That is because "speech concerning public affairs is more than self-expression; it is the essence of self-government." Garrison v. Louisiana, 379 U. S. 64, 7475 (1964). Accordingly, "speech on public issues occupies the highest rung of the hierarchy of First Amendment values, and is entitled to special protection." Connick v. Myers, 461 U. S. 138, 145 (1983) (internal quotation marks omitted).

"'[N]ot all speech is of equal First Amendment importance,'" however, and where matters of purely private significance are at issue, First Amendment protections are often less rigorous. Hustler, supra, at 56 (quoting Dun & Bradstreet, supra, at 758); see Connick, supra, at 145147. That is because restricting speech on purely private matters does not implicate the same constitutional concerns as limiting speech on matters of public interest: "[T]here is no threat to the free and robust debate of public issues; there is no potential interference with a meaningful dialogue of ideas"; and the "threat of liability" does not pose the risk of "a reaction of self-censorship" on matters of public import. Dun & Bradstreet, supra, at 760 (internal quotation marks omitted).

We noted a short time ago, in considering whether public employee speech addressed a matter of public concern, that "the boundaries of the public concern test are not well defined." San Diego v. Roe, 543 U. S. 77, 83 (2004) (per curiam). Although that remains true today, we have articulated some guiding principles, principles that accord broad protection to speech to ensure that courts themselves do not become inadvertent censors.

Speech deals with matters of public concern when it can "be fairly considered as relating to any matter of political, social, or other concern to the community," Connick, supra, at 146, or when it "is a subject of legitimate news

6

Opinion of the Court

interest; that is, a subject of general interest and of value and concern to the public," San Diego, supra, at 8384. See Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn, 420 U. S. 469, 492494 (1975); Time, Inc. v. Hill, 385 U. S. 374, 387 388 (1967). The arguably "inappropriate or controversial character of a statement is irrelevant to the question whether it deals with a matter of public concern." Rankin v. McPherson, 483 U. S. 378, 387 (1987).

Our opinion in Dun & Bradstreet, on the other hand, provides an example of speech of only private concern. In that case we held, as a general matter, that information about a particular individual's credit report "concerns no public issue." 472 U. S., at 762. The content of the report, we explained, "was speech solely in the individual interest of the speaker and its specific business audience." Ibid. That was confirmed by the fact that the particular report was sent to only five subscribers to the reporting service, who were bound not to disseminate it further. Ibid. To cite another example, we concluded in San Diego v. Roe that, in the context of a government employer regulating the speech of its employees, videos of an employee engaging in sexually explicit acts did not address a public concern; the videos "did nothing to inform the public about any aspect of the [employing agency's] functioning or operation." 543 U. S., at 84.

Deciding whether speech is of public or private concern requires us to examine the "'content, form, and context'" of that speech, "'as revealed by the whole record.'" Dun & Bradstreet, supra, at 761 (quoting Connick, supra, at 147 148). As in other First Amendment cases, the court is obligated "to 'make an independent examination of the whole record' in order to make sure that 'the judgment does not constitute a forbidden intrusion on the field of free expression.'" Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc., 466 U. S. 485, 499 (1984) (quoting New York Times, supra, at 284286). In considering content,

7

Opinion of the Court

form, and context, no factor is dispositive, and it is necessary to evaluate all the circumstances of the speech, including what was said, where it was said, and how it was said.

The "content" of Westboro's signs plainly relates to broad issues of interest to society at large, rather than matters of "purely private concern." Dun & Bradstreet, supra, at 759. The placards read "God Hates the USA/Thank God for 9/11," "America is Doomed," "Don't Pray for the USA," "Thank God for IEDs," "Fag Troops," "Semper Fi Fags," "God Hates Fags," "Maryland Taliban," "Fags Doom Nations," "Not Blessed Just Cursed," "Thank God for Dead Soldiers," "Pope in Hell," "Priests Rape Boys," "You're Going to Hell," and "God Hates You." App. 37813787. While these messages may fall short of refined social or political commentary, the issues they highlight--the political and moral conduct of the United States and its citizens, the fate of our Nation, homosexuality in the military, and scandals involving the Catholic clergy--are matters of public import. The signs certainly convey Westboro's position on those issues, in a manner designed, unlike the private speech in Dun & Bradstreet, to reach as broad a public audience as possible. And even if a few of the signs--such as "You're Going to Hell" and "God Hates You"--were viewed as containing messages related to Matthew Snyder or the Snyders specifically, that would not change the fact that the overall thrust and dominant theme of Westboro's demonstration spoke to broader public issues.

Apart from the content of Westboro's signs, Snyder contends that the "context" of the speech--its connection with his son's funeral--makes the speech a matter of private rather than public concern. The fact that Westboro spoke in connection with a funeral, however, cannot by itself transform the nature of Westboro's speech. Westboro's signs, displayed on public land next to a public

8

Opinion of the Court

street, reflect the fact that the church finds much to condemn in modern society. Its speech is "fairly characterized as constituting speech on a matter of public concern," Connick, 461 U. S., at 146, and the funeral setting does not alter that conclusion.

Snyder argues that the church members in fact mounted a personal attack on Snyder and his family, and then attempted to "immunize their conduct by claiming that they were actually protesting the United States' tolerance of homosexuality or the supposed evils of the Catholic Church." Reply Brief for Petitioner 10. We are not concerned in this case that Westboro's speech on public matters was in any way contrived to insulate speech on a private matter from liability. Westboro had been actively engaged in speaking on the subjects addressed in its picketing long before it became aware of Matthew Snyder, and there can be no serious claim that Westboro's picketing did not represent its "honestly believed" views on public issues. Garrison, 379 U. S., at 73. There was no preexisting relationship or conflict between Westboro and Snyder that might suggest Westboro's speech on public matters was intended to mask an attack on Snyder over a private matter. Contrast Connick, supra, at 153 (finding public employee speech a matter of private concern when it was "no coincidence that [the speech] followed upon the heels of [a] transfer notice" affecting the employee).

Snyder goes on to argue that Westboro's speech should be afforded less than full First Amendment protection "not only because of the words" but also because the church members exploited the funeral "as a platform to bring their message to a broader audience." Brief for Petitioner 44, 40. There is no doubt that Westboro chose to stage its picketing at the Naval Academy, the Maryland State House, and Matthew Snyder's funeral to increase publicity for its views and because of the relation between those sites and its views--in the case of the military funeral,

9

Opinion of the Court

because Westboro believes that God is killing American soldiers as punishment for the Nation's sinful policies.

Westboro's choice to convey its views in conjunction with Matthew Snyder's funeral made the expression of those views particularly hurtful to many, especially to Matthew's father. The record makes clear that the applicable legal term--"emotional distress"--fails to capture fully the anguish Westboro's choice added to Mr. Snyder's already incalculable grief. But Westboro conducted its picketing peacefully on matters of public concern at a public place adjacent to a public street. Such space occupies a "special position in terms of First Amendment protection." United States v. Grace, 461 U. S. 171, 180 (1983). "[W]e have repeatedly referred to public streets as the archetype of a traditional public forum," noting that "'[t]ime out of mind' public streets and sidewalks have been used for public assembly and debate." Frisby v. Schultz, 487 U. S. 474, 480 (1988).4

That said, "[e]ven protected speech is not equally permissible in all places and at all times." Id., at 479 (quoting Cornelius v. NAACP Legal Defense & Ed. Fund, Inc., 473 U. S. 788, 799 (1985)). Westboro's choice of where and when to conduct its picketing is not beyond the Government's regulatory reach--it is "subject to reasonable time, place, or manner restrictions" that are consistent with the standards announced in this Court's precedents. Clark v. Community for Creative Non-Violence, 468 U. S. 288, 293 (1984). Maryland now has a law imposing restrictions on funeral picketing, Md. Crim. Law Code Ann. §10-205

10

Opinion of the Court

(Lexis Supp. 2010), as do 43 other States and the Federal Government. See Brief for American Legion as Amicus Curiae 18-19, n. 2 (listing statutes). To the extent these laws are content neutral, they raise very different questions from the tort verdict at issue in this case. Maryland's law, however, was not in effect at the time of the events at issue here, so we have no occasion to consider how it might apply to facts such as those before us, or whether it or other similar regulations are constitutional.5

We have identified a few limited situations where the location of targeted picketing can be regulated under provisions that the Court has determined to be content neutral. In Frisby, for example, we upheld a ban on such picketing "before or about" a particular residence, 487 U. S., at 477. In Madsen v. Women's Health Center, Inc., we approved an injunction requiring a buffer zone between protesters and an abortion clinic entrance. 512 U. S. 753, 768 (1994). The facts here are obviously quite different, both with respect to the activity being regulated and the means of restricting those activities.

Simply put, the church members had the right to be where they were. Westboro alerted local authorities to its funeral protest and fully complied with police guidance on where the picketing could be staged. The picketing was conducted under police supervision some 1,000 feet from the church, out of the sight of those at the church. The protest was not unruly; there was no shouting, profanity, or violence.

The record confirms that any distress occasioned by Westboro's picketing turned on the content and viewpoint of the message conveyed, rather than any interference with the funeral itself. A group of parishioners standing at the very spot where Westboro stood, holding signs that

11

Opinion of the Court said "God Bless America" and "God Loves You," would not have been subjected to liability. It was what Westboro said that exposed it to tort damages.

Given that Westboro's speech was at a public place on a matter of public concern, that speech is entitled to "special protection" under the First Amendment. Such speech cannot be restricted simply because it is upsetting or arouses contempt. "If there is a bedrock principle underlying the First Amendment, it is that the government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea itself offensive or disagreeable." Texas v. Johnson, 491 U. S. 397, 414 (1989). Indeed, "the point of all speech protection . . . is to shield just those choices of content that in someone's eyes are misguided, or even hurtful." Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, L esbian and Bisexual Group of Boston, Inc., 515 U. S. 557, 574 (1995).

The jury here was instructed that it could hold Westboro liable for intentional infliction of emotional distress based on a finding that Westboro's picketing was "outrageous." "Outrageousness," however, is a highly malleable standard with "an inherent subjectiveness about it which would allow a jury to impose liability on the basis of the jurors' tastes or views, or perhaps on the basis of their dislike of a particular expression." Hustler, 485 U. S., at 55 (internal quotation marks omitted). In a case such as this, a jury is "unlikely to be neutral with respect to the content of [the] speech," posing "a real danger of becoming an instrument for the suppression of . . . 'vehement, caustic, and sometimes unpleasan[t]' " expression. Bose Corp., 466 U. S., at 510 (quoting New York Times, 376 U. S., at 270). Such a risk is unacceptable; "in public debate [we] must tolerate insulting, and even outrageous, speech in order to provide adequate 'breathing space' to the freedoms protected by the First Amendment." Boos v. Barry, 485 U. S. 312, 322 (1988) (some internal quotation marks omitted). What Westboro said, in the whole context of how and where it

12

Opinion of the Court

chose to say it, is entitled to "special protection" under the First Amendment, and that protection cannot be overcome by a jury finding that the picketing was outrageous.

For all these reasons, the jury verdict imposing tort liability on Westboro for intentional infliction of emotional distress must be set aside.

III

The jury also found Westboro liable for the state law torts of intrusion upon seclusion and civil conspiracy. The Court of Appeals did not examine these torts independently of the intentional infliction of emotional distress tort. Instead, the Court of Appeals reversed the District Court wholesale, holding that the judgment wrongly "attache[d] tort liability to constitutionally protected speech." 580 F. 3d, at 226.

Snyder argues that even assuming Westboro's speech is entitled to First Amendment protection generally, the church is not immunized from liability for intrusion upon seclusion because Snyder was a member of a captive audience at his son's funeral. Brief for Petitioner 4546. We do not agree. In most circumstances, "the Constitution does not permit the government to decide which types of otherwise protected speech are sufficiently offensive to require protection for the unwilling listener or viewer. Rather, . . . the burden normally falls upon the viewer to avoid further bombardment of [his] sensibilities simply by averting [his] eyes." Erznoznik v. Jacksonville, 422 U. S. 205, 210211 (1975) (internal quotation marks omitted). As a result, "[t]he ability of government, consonant with the Constitution, to shut off discourse solely to protect others from hearing it is . . . dependent upon a showing that substantial privacy interests are being invaded in an essentially intolerable manner." Cohen v. California, 403 U. S. 15, 21 (1971).

As a general matter, we have applied the captive audi-

13

Opinion of the Court

ence doctrine only sparingly to protect unwilling listeners from protected speech. For example, we have upheld a statute allowing a homeowner to restrict the delivery of offensive mail to his home, see Rowan v. Post Office Dept., 397 U. S. 728, 736738 (1970), and an ordinance prohibiting picketing "before or about" any individual's residence, Frisby, 487 U. S., at 484485.

Here, Westboro stayed well away from the memorial service. Snyder could see no more than the tops of the signs when driving to the funeral. And there is no indication that the picketing in any way interfered with the funeral service itself. We decline to expand the captive audience doctrine to the circumstances presented here.

Because we find that the First Amendment bars Snyder from recovery for intentional infliction of emotional distress or intrusion upon seclusion--the alleged unlawful activity Westboro conspired to accomplish--we must likewise hold that Snyder cannot recover for civil conspiracy based on those torts.

IV

Our holding today is narrow. We are required in First Amendment cases to carefully review the record, and the reach of our opinion here is limited by the particular facts before us. As we have noted, "the sensitivity and significance of the interests presented in clashes between First Amendment and [state law] rights counsel relying on limited principles that sweep no more broadly than the appropriate context of the instant case." Florida Star v. B. J. F., 491 U. S. 524, 533 (1989).

Westboro believes that America is morally flawed; many Americans might feel the same about Westboro. Westboro's funeral picketing is certainly hurtful and its contribution to public discourse may be negligible. But Westboro addressed matters of public import on public property, in a peaceful manner, in full compliance with the

14

Opinion of the Court

guidance of local officials. The speech was indeed planned to coincide with Matthew Snyder's funeral, but did not itself disrupt that funeral, and Westboro's choice to conduct its picketing at that time and place did not alter the nature of its speech.

Speech is powerful. It can stir people to action, move them to tears of both joy and sorrow, and--as it did here-- inflict great pain. On the facts before us, we cannot react to that pain by punishing the speaker. As a Nation we have chosen a different course--to protect even hurtful speech on public issues to ensure that we do not stifle public debate. That choice requires that we shield Westboro from tort liability for its picketing in this case.

The judgment of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit is affirmed.

It is so ordered.

_________________
1 A few weeks after the funeral, one of the picketers posted a message on Westboro's Web site discussing the picketing and containing relig- iously oriented denunciations of the Snyders, interspersed among lengthy Bible quotations. Snyder discovered the posting, referred to by the parties as the "epic," during an Internet search for his son's name. The epic is not properly before us and does not factor in our analysis. Although the epic was submitted to the jury and discussed in the courts below, Snyder never mentioned it in his petition for certiorari. See Pet. for Cert. i ("Snyder's claim arose out of Phelps' intentional acts at Snyder's son's funeral" (emphasis added)); this Court's Rule 14.1(g) (petition must contain statement "setting out the facts material to consideration of the question presented"). Nor did Snyder respond to the statement in the opposition to certiorari that "[t]hough the epic was asserted as a basis for the claims at trial, the petition . . . appears to be addressing only claims based on the picketing." Brief in Opposition 9. Snyder devoted only one paragraph in the argument section of his opening merits brief to the epic. Given the foregoing and the fact that an Internet posting may raise distinct issues in this context, we decline to consider the epic in deciding this case. See Ontario v. Quon, 560 U. S. ___, ___ ___ (2010) (slip op., at 10-12).

2 One judge concurred in the judgment on the ground that Snyder had failed to introduce sufficient evidence at trial to support a jury verdict on any of his tort claims. 580 F. 3d, at 227 (opinion of Shedd, J.). The Court of Appeals majority determined that the picketers had "voluntarily waived" any such contention on appeal. Id., at 216. Like the court below, we proceed on the unexamined premise that respondents' speech was tortious.

3 The dissent attempts to draw parallels between this case and hypothetical cases involving defamation or fighting words. Post, at 10-11 (opinion of ALITO, J.). But, as the court below noted, there is "no suggestion that the speech at issue falls within one of the categorical exclusions from First Amendment protection, such as those for obscenity or 'fighting words.'" 580 F. 3d, at 218, n. 12; see United States v. Stevens, 559 U. S. ___ , ___ (2010) (slip op., at 5).

4 The dissent is wrong to suggest that the Court considers a public street "a free-fire zone in which otherwise actionable verbal attacks are shielded from liability." Post, at 1011. The fact that Westboro conducted its picketing adjacent to a public street does not insulate the speech from liability, but instead heightens concerns that what is at issue is an effort to communicate to the public the church's views on matters of public concern. That is why our precedents so clearly recognize the special significance of this traditional public forum.

5 The Maryland law prohibits picketing within 100 feet of a funeral service or funeral procession; Westboro's picketing would have complied with that restriction.

15


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Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011)

BREYER, J., concurring

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 09751

_________________

ALBERT SNYDER, PETITIONER v. FRED W.
PHELPS, SR., ET AL.

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF
APPEALS FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

[March 2, 2011]

JUSTICE BREYER, concurring.

I agree with the Court and join its opinion. That opinion restricts its analysis here to the matter raised in the petition for certiorari, namely, Westboro's picketing activity. The opinion does not examine in depth the effect of television broadcasting. Nor does it say anything about Internet postings. The Court holds that the First Amendment protects the picketing that occurred here, primarily because the picketing addressed matters of "public concern."

While I agree with the Court's conclusion that the picketing addressed matters of public concern, I do not believe that our First Amendment analysis can stop at that point. A State can sometimes regulate picketing, even picketing on matters of public concern. See Frisby v. Schultz, 487 U. S. 474 (1988). Moreover, suppose that A were physically to assault B, knowing that the assault (being newsworthy) would provide A with an opportunity to transmit to the public his views on a matter of public concern. The constitutionally protected nature of the end would not shield A's use of unlawful, unprotected means. And in some circumstances the use of certain words as means would be similarly unprotected. See Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U. S. 568 (1942) ("fighting words").

The dissent recognizes that the means used here consist

BREYER, J., concurring

of speech. But it points out that the speech, like an assault, seriously harmed a private individual. Indeed, the state tort of "intentional infliction of emotional distress" forbids only conduct that produces distress "so severe that no reasonable man could be expected to endure it," and which itself is "so outrageous in character, and so extreme in degree, as to go beyond all possible bounds of decency, and to be regarded as atrocious, and utterly intolerable in a civilized community." Post, at 2-3 (opinion of ALITO, J.) (quoting Harris v. Jones, 281 Md. 560, 567, 571, 380 A. 2d 611, 614, 616 (1977); internal quotation marks omitted). The dissent requires us to ask whether our holding unreasonably limits liability for intentional infliction of emotional distress--to the point where A (in order to draw attention to his views on a public matter) might launch a verbal assault upon B, a private person, publicly revealing the most intimate details of B's private life, while knowing that the revelation will cause B severe emotional harm. Does our decision leave the State powerless to protect the individual against invasions of, e.g., personal privacy, even in the most horrendous of such circumstances?

As I understand the Court's opinion, it does not hold or imply that the State is always powerless to provide private individuals with necessary protection. Rather, the Court has reviewed the underlying facts in detail, as will sometimes prove necessary where First Amendment values and state-protected (say, privacy-related) interests seriously conflict. Cf. Florida Star v. B. J. F., 491 U. S. 524, 533 (1989); Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc., 466 U. S. 485, 499 (1984). That review makes clear that Westboro's means of communicating its views consisted of picketing in a place where picketing was lawful and in compliance with all police directions. The picketing could not be seen or heard from the funeral ceremony itself. And Snyder testified that he saw no more than the tops of the picketers' signs as he drove to the funeral. To

2

BREYER, J., concurring

uphold the application of state law in these circumstances would punish Westboro for seeking to communicate its views on matters of public concern without proportionately advancing the State's interest in protecting its citizens against severe emotional harm. Consequently, the First Amendment protects Westboro. As I read the Court's opinion, it holds no more.


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ALITO, J., dissenting

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 09751

_________________

ALBERT SNYDER, PETITIONER v. FRED W.
PHELPS, SR., ET AL.

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF
APPEALS FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

[March 2, 2011]

JUSTICE ALITO, dissenting.

Our profound national commitment to free and open debate is not a license for the vicious verbal assault that occurred in this case.

Petitioner Albert Snyder is not a public figure. He is simply a parent whose son, Marine Lance Corporal Matthew Snyder, was killed in Iraq. Mr. Snyder wanted what is surely the right of any parent who experiences such an incalculable loss: to bury his son in peace. But respondents, members of the Westboro Baptist Church, deprived him of that elementary right. They first issued a press release and thus turned Matthew's funeral into a tumultuous media event. They then appeared at the church, approached as closely as they could without trespassing, and launched a malevolent verbal attack on Matthew and his family at a time of acute emotional vulnerability. As a result, Albert Snyder suffered severe and lasting emotional injury.1aThe Court now holds that the First Amendment protected respondents' right to brutalize Mr. Snyder. I cannot agree.

I

Respondents and other members of their church have

ALITO, J., dissenting

strong opinions on certain moral, religious, and political issues, and the First Amendment ensures that they have almost limitless opportunities to express their views. They may write and distribute books, articles, and other texts; they may create and disseminate video and audio recordings; they may circulate petitions; they may speak to individuals and groups in public forums and in any private venue that wishes to accommodate them; they may picket peacefully in countless locations; they may appear on television and speak on the radio; they may post messages on the Internet and send out e-mails. And they may express their views in terms that are "uninhibited," "vehement," and "caustic." New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U. S. 254, 270 (1964).

It does not follow, however, that they may intentionally inflict severe emotional injury on private persons at a time of intense emotional sensitivity by launching vicious verbal attacks that make no contribution to public debate. To protect against such injury, "most if not all jurisdictions" permit recovery in tort for the intentional infliction of emotional distress (or IIED). Hustler Magazine, Inc. v. Falwell, 485 U. S. 46, 53 (1988).

This is a very narrow tort with requirements that "are rigorous, and difficult to satisfy." W. Keeton, D. Dobbs, R. Keeton, & D. Owen, Prosser and Keeton on Law of Torts §12, p. 61 (5th ed. 1984). To recover, a plaintiff must show that the conduct at issue caused harm that was truly severe. See Figueiredo-Torres v. Nickel, 321 Md. 642, 653, 584 A. 2d 69, 75 (1991) ("[R]ecovery will be meted out sparingly, its balm reserved for those wounds that are truly severe and incapable of healing themselves" (internal quotation marks omitted)); Harris v. Jones, 281 Md. 560, 571, 380 A. 2d 611, 616 (1977) (the distress must be "'so severe that no reasonable man could be expected to endure it'" (quoting Restatement (Second) of Torts §46, Comment j (19631964))).

2

ALITO, J., dissenting

A plaintiff must also establish that the defendant's conduct was "'so outrageous in character, and so extreme in degree, as to go beyond all possible bounds of decency, and to be regarded as atrocious, and utterly intolerable in a civilized community.'" Id., at 567, 380 A. 2d, at 614 (quoting Restatement (Second) of Torts §46, Comment d).

Although the elements of the IIED tort are difficult to meet, respondents long ago abandoned any effort to show that those tough standards were not satisfied here. On appeal, they chose not to contest the sufficiency of the evidence. See 580 F. 3d 206, 216 (CA4 2009). They did not dispute that Mr. Snyder suffered "'wounds that are truly severe and incapable of healing themselves.'" Figueiredo-Torres, supra, at 653, 584 A. 2d, at 75. Nor did they dispute that their speech was "'so outrageous in character, and so extreme in degree, as to go beyond all possible bounds of decency, and to be regarded as atrocious, and utterly intolerable in a civilized community.'" Harris, supra, at 567, 380 A. 2d, at 614. Instead, they maintained that the First Amendment gave them a license to engage in such conduct. They are wrong.

II

It is well established that a claim for the intentional infliction of emotional distress can be satisfied by speech. Indeed, what has been described as "[t]he leading case" recognizing this tort involved speech. Prosser and Keeton, supra, §12, at 60 (citing Wilkinson v. Downton, [1897] 2 Q. B. 57); see also Restatement (Second) of Torts §46, illustration 1. And although this Court has not decided the question, I think it is clear that the First Amendment does not entirely preclude liability for the intentional infliction of emotional distress by means of speech.

This Court has recognized that words may "by their very utterance inflict injury" and that the First Amendment does not shield utterances that form "no essential part of

3

ALITO, J., dissenting

any exposition of ideas, and are of such slight social value as a step to truth that any benefit that may be derived from them is clearly outweighed by the social interest in order and morality." Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire, 315 U. S. 568, 572 (1942); see also Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U. S. 296, 310 (1940) ("[P]ersonal abuse is not in any proper sense communication of information or opinion safeguarded by the Constitution"). When grave injury is intentionally inflicted by means of an attack like the one at issue here, the First Amendment should not interfere with recovery.

III

In this case, respondents brutally attacked Matthew Snyder, and this attack, which was almost certain to inflict injury, was central to respondents' well-practiced strategy for attracting public attention.

On the morning of Matthew Snyder's funeral, respondents could have chosen to stage their protest at countless locations. They could have picketed the United States Capitol, the White House, the Supreme Court, the Pentagon, or any of the more than 5,600 military recruiting stations in this country. They could have returned to the Maryland State House or the United States Naval Academy, where they had been the day before. They could have selected any public road where pedestrians are allowed. (There are more than 4,000,000 miles of public roads in the United States.2a) They could have staged their protest in a public park. (There are more than 20,000 public parks in this country.3a) They could have chosen any

4

ALITO, J., dissenting

Catholic church where no funeral was taking place. (There are nearly 19,000 Catholic churches in the United States.4a) But of course, a small group picketing at any of these locations would have probably gone unnoticed.

The Westboro Baptist Church, however, has devised a strategy that remedies this problem. As the Court notes, church members have protested at nearly 600 military funerals. Ante, at 1. They have also picketed the funerals of police officers,5a firefighters,6a and the victims of natural disasters,7a accidents,8a and shocking crimes.9aAnd in advance of these protests, they issue press releases to ensure that their protests will attract public attention.10a

This strategy works because it is expected that respondents' verbal assaults will wound the family and friends of the deceased and because the media is irresistibly drawn to the sight of persons who are visibly in grief. The more outrageous the funeral protest, the more publicity the Westboro Baptist Church is able to obtain. Thus, when the church recently announced its intention to picket the funeral of a 9-year-old girl killed in the shooting spree in Tucson--proclaiming that she was "better off dead"11a-- their announcement was national news,12a and the church

5

ALITO, J., dissenting

was able to obtain free air time on the radio in exchange for canceling its protest.13

Similarly, in 2006, the church got air time on a talk radio show in exchange for canceling its threatened protest at the funeral of five Amish girls killed by a crazed gunman.14

In this case, respondents implemented the Westboro Baptist Church's publicity-seeking strategy. Their press release stated that they were going "to picket the funeral of Lance Cpl. Matthew A. Snyder" because "God Almighty killed Lance Cpl. Snyder. He died in shame, not honor-- for a fag nation cursed by God . . . . Now in Hell--sine die." Supp. App. in No. 08-1026 (CA4), p. 158a. This announcement guaranteed that Matthew's funeral would be transformed into a raucous media event and began the wounding process. It is well known that anticipation may heighten the effect of a painful event.

On the day of the funeral, respondents, true to their word, displayed placards that conveyed the message promised in their press release. Signs stating "God Hates You"

6

ALITO, J., dissenting

and "Thank God for Dead Soldiers" reiterated the message that God had caused Matthew's death in retribution for his sins. App. to Brief for Appellants in No. 08-1026 (CA4), pp. 3787, 3788 (hereinafter App.). Others, stating "You're Going to Hell" and "Not Blessed Just Cursed," conveyed the message that Matthew was "in Hell--sine die." Id., at 3783.

Even if those who attended the funeral were not alerted in advance about respondents' intentions, the meaning of these signs would not have been missed. Since respondents chose to stage their protest at Matthew Snyder's funeral and not at any of the other countless available venues, a reasonable person would have assumed that there was a connection between the messages on the placards and the deceased. Moreover, since a church funeral is an event that naturally brings to mind thoughts about the afterlife, some of respondents' signs--e.g., "God Hates You," "Not Blessed Just Cursed," and "You're Going to Hell"--would have likely been interpreted as referring to God's judgment of the deceased.

Other signs would most naturally have been understood as suggesting--falsely--that Matthew was gay. Homosexuality was the theme of many of the signs. There were signs reading "God Hates Fags," "Semper Fi Fags," "Fags Doom Nations," and "Fag Troops." Id., at 3781-3787. Another placard depicted two men engaging in anal inter- course. A reasonable bystander seeing those signs would have likely concluded that they were meant to suggest that the deceased was a homosexual.

After the funeral, the Westboro picketers reaffirmed the meaning of their protest. They posted an online account entitled "The Burden of Marine Lance Cpl. Matthew A. Snyder. The Visit of Westboro Baptist Church to Help the Inhabitants of Maryland Connect the Dots!" Id., at 3788.15a

7

ALITO, J., dissenting

Belying any suggestion that they had simply made general comments about homosexuality, the Catholic Church, and the United States military, the "epic" addressed the Snyder family directly:
"God blessed you, Mr. and Mrs. Snyder, with a resource and his name was Matthew. He was an arrow in your quiver! In thanks to God for the comfort the child could bring you, you had a DUTY to prepare that child to serve the LORD his GOD--PERIOD! You did JUST THE OPPOSITE--you raised him for the devil.

. . . . .

"Albert and Julie RIPPED that body apart and taught Matthew to defy his Creator, to divorce, and to commit adultery. They taught him how to support the largest pedophile machine in the history of the entire world, the Roman Catholic monstrosity. Every dime they gave the Roman Catholic monster they condemned their own souls. They also, in supporting satanic Catholicism, taught Matthew to be an idolater.

. . . . .

"Then after all that they sent him to fight for the United States of Sodom, a filthy country that is in lock step with his evil, wicked, and sinful manner of life, putting him in the cross hairs of a God that is so mad

8

ALITO, J., dissenting

He has smoke coming from his nostrils and fire from his mouth! How dumb was that?" Id., at 3791.
In light of this evidence, it is abundantly clear that respondents, going far beyond commentary on matters of public concern, specifically attacked Matthew Snyder because (1) he was a Catholic and (2) he was a member of the United States military. Both Matthew and petitioner were private figures,16a and this attack was not speech on a matter of public concern. While commentary on the Catholic Church or the United States military constitutes speech on matters of public concern, speech regarding Matthew Snyder's purely private conduct does not.

JUSTICE BREYER provides an apt analogy to a case in which the First Amendment would permit recovery in tort for a verbal attack:

"[S]uppose that A were physically to assault B, knowing that the assault (being newsworthy) would provide A with an opportunity to transmit to the public his views on a matter of public concern. The constitutionally protected nature of the end would not shield A's use of unlawful, unprotected means. And in some circumstances the use of certain words as means would be similarly unprotected." Ante, at 1 (concurring opinion).
This captures what respondents did in this case. Indeed, this is the strategy that they have routinely employed--and that they will now continue to employ-- inflicting severe and lasting emotional injury on an ever growing list of innocent victims.

IV

The Court concludes that respondents' speech was protected by the First Amendment for essentially three

9

ALITO, J., dissenting

reasons, but none is sound.

First--and most important--the Court finds that "the overall thrust and dominant theme of [their] demonstration spoke to" broad public issues. Ante, at 8. As I have attempted to show, this portrayal is quite inaccurate; respondents' attack on Matthew was of central importance. But in any event, I fail to see why actionable speech should be immunized simply because it is interspersed with speech that is protected. The First Amendment allows recovery for defamatory statements that are interspersed with nondefamatory statements on matters of public concern, and there is no good reason why respondents' attack on Matthew Snyder and his family should be treated differently.

Second, the Court suggests that respondents' personal attack on Matthew Snyder is entitled to First Amendment protection because it was not motivated by a private grudge, see ante, at 9, but I see no basis for the strange distinction that the Court appears to draw. Respondents' motivation--"to increase publicity for its views," ibid.--did not transform their statements attacking the character of a private figure into statements that made a contribution to debate on matters of public concern. Nor did their publicity-seeking motivation soften the sting of their attack. And as far as culpability is concerned, one might well think that wounding statements uttered in the heat of a private feud are less, not more, blameworthy than similar statements made as part of a cold and calculated strategy to slash a stranger as a means of attracting public attention.

Third, the Court finds it significant that respondents' protest occurred on a public street, but this fact alone should not be enough to preclude IIED liability. To be sure, statements made on a public street may be less likely to satisfy the elements of the IIED tort than statements made on private property, but there is no reason

10

ALITO, J., dissenting

why a public street in close proximity to the scene of a funeral should be regarded as a free-fire zone in which otherwise actionable verbal attacks are shielded from liability. If the First Amendment permits the States to protect their residents from the harm inflicted by such attacks--and the Court does not hold otherwise--then the location of the tort should not be dispositive. A physical assault may occur without trespassing; it is no defense that the perpetrator had "the right to be where [he was]." See ante, at 11. And the same should be true with respect to unprotected speech. Neither classic "fighting words" nor defamatory statements are immunized when they occur in a public place, and there is no good reason to treat a verbal assault based on the conduct or character of a private figure like Matthew Snyder any differently.

One final comment about the opinion of the Court is in order. The Court suggests that the wounds inflicted by vicious verbal assaults at funerals will be prevented or at least mitigated in the future by new laws that restrict picketing within a specified distance of a funeral. See ante, at 10-11. It is apparent, however, that the enactment of these laws is no substitute for the protection provided by the established IIED tort; according to the Court, the verbal attacks that severely wounded petitioner in this case complied with the new Maryland law regulating funeral picketing. See ante, at 11, n. 5. And there is absolutely nothing to suggest that Congress and the state legislatures, in enacting these laws, intended them to displace the protection provided by the well-established IIED tort.

The real significance of these new laws is not that they obviate the need for IIED protection. Rather, their enactment dramatically illustrates the fundamental point that funerals are unique events at which special protection against emotional assaults is in order. At funerals, the emotional well-being of bereaved relatives is particularly

11

ALITO, J., dissenting

vulnerable. See National Archives and Records Admin. v. Favish, 541 U. S. 157, 168 (2004). Exploitation of a funeral for the purpose of attracting public attention "intrud[es] upon their . . . grief," ibid., and may permanently stain their memories of the final moments before a loved one is laid to rest. Allowing family members to have a few hours of peace without harassment does not undermine public debate. I would therefore hold that, in this setting, the First Amendment permits a private figure to recover for the intentional infliction of emotional distress caused by speech on a matter of private concern.

V

In reversing the District Court judgment in favor of petitioner, the Court of Appeals relied on several grounds not discussed in the opinion of this Court or in the separate opinion supporting affirmance. I now turn briefly to those issues.

First, the Court of Appeals held that the District Court erred by allowing the jury to decide whether respondents' speech was "'directed specifically at the Snyder family.'" 580 F. 3d, at 221. It is not clear whether the Court of Appeals thought that this was a question for the trial judge alone or a question on which the judge had to make a preliminary ruling before sending it to the jury. In either event, however, the submission of this question to the jury was not reversible error because, as explained above, it is clear that respondents' statements targeted the Snyders.

Second, the Court of Appeals held that the trial judge went astray in allowing the jury to decide whether respondents' speech was so " 'offensive and shocking as to not be entitled to First Amendment protection.'" Ibid.

This instruction also did respondents no harm. Because their speech did not relate to a matter of public concern, it was not protected from liability by the First Amendment,

12

ALITO, J., dissenting

and the only question for the jury was whether the elements of the IIED tort were met.

Third, the Court of Appeals appears to have concluded that the First Amendment does not permit an IIED plaintiff to recover for speech that cannot reasonably be interpreted as stating actual facts about an individual. See id., at 222. In reaching this conclusion, the Court of Appeals relied on two of our cases--Milkovich v. Lorain Journal Co., 497 U. S. 1 (1990), and Hustler, 485 U. S. 46--but neither supports the broad proposition that the Court of Appeals adopted.

Milkovich was a defamation case, and falsity is an element of defamation. Nothing in Milkovich even hints that the First Amendment requires that this defamation element be engrafted onto the IIED tort.

Hustler did involve an IIED claim, but the plaintiff there was a public figure, and the Court did not suggest that its holding would also apply in a case involving a private figure. Nor did the Court suggest that its holding applied across the board to all types of IIED claims. Instead, the holding was limited to "publications such as the one here at issue," namely, a caricature in a magazine. 485 U. S., at 56. Unless a caricature of a public figure can reasonably be interpreted as stating facts that may be proved to be wrong, the caricature does not have the same potential to wound as a personal verbal assault on a vulnerable private figure.

Because I cannot agree either with the holding of this Court or the other grounds on which the Court of Appeals relied, I would reverse the decision below and remand for further proceedings.17

13

ALITO, J., dissenting

VI

Respondents' outrageous conduct caused petitioner great injury, and the Court now compounds that injury by depriving petitioner of a judgment that acknowledges the wrong he suffered.

In order to have a society in which public issues can be openly and vigorously debated, it is not necessary to allow the brutalization of innocent victims like petitioner. I therefore respectfully dissent.

__________
1a See 580 F. 3d 206, 213214, 216 (CA4 2009).

2a See See Dept. of Transp., Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2008, Table HM12M, http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/ statistics/2008/hm12m.cfm (all Internet materials as visited Feb. 25, 2011, and available in Clerk of Court's case file).

3a See See Trust for Public Land, 2010 City Park Facts, http:// www.tpl.org/content_documents/CityParkFacts_2010.pdf.

4a See United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Catholic Information Project, http://www.usccb.org/comm/cip.shtml#toc4.

5a See http://www.godhatesfags.com/fliers/20110124_St-Petersburg-FL-Dead-Police.pdf.

6a See http: //www.godhatesfags.com / fliers/20110120_Dead-Volunteer-Firefighter-Connecting_the_Dots-Baltimore-MD.pdf.

7a See http://www.godhatesfags.com/fliers/20110104_Newburg-and- Rolla-MO-Tornado-Connecting-the-Dots.pdf.

8a See http://www.godhatesfags.com/fliers/20101218_Wichita-KS-Two-Dead-Wichita-Bikers.pdf.

9a See See http://www.godhatesfags.com/fliers/20110129_Tampa-FL-God-Sent-Military-Mom-Shooter-to-Kill-Kids.pdf.

10a See nn. 59, supra.

11a See http://www.godhatesfags.com/fliers/20110109_AZ-Shooter- Connecting-the-Dots-Day-2.pdf.

12a See e.g., Stanglin, Anti-Gay Church Group Plans to Picket Tucson Funerals, USA Today, Jan. 10, 2011, http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ ondeadline / post / 2011/01/anti-gay-church-group-plans-to-picket-tucston- funerals/1; Mohanani, Group to Picket 9-Year-Old Tucson Victim's Funeral, Palm Beach Post, Jan. 11, 2011, http://www.palmbeachpost.com/ news/nation/group-to-picket-9-year-old-tucson-victims-1177921.html; Mehta & Santa Cruz, Tucson Rallies to Protect Girl's Family from Protesters, Los Angeles Times, Jan. 11, 2011, http://articles.latimes.com/ 2011/jan/11/nation/la-na-funeral-protest-20110112; Medrano, Funeral Protest: Arizona Rallies to Foil Westboro Baptist Church, Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 11, 2011, http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2011/ 0111/Funeral-protest-Arizona-rallies-to-foil-Westboro-Baptist-Church.

13a See Santa Cruz & Mehta, Westboro Church Agrees Not to Take Protest to Shooting Victims' Funerals, Los Angeles Times, Jan. 13, 2011, http://articles.latimes.com/2011/jan/13/nation/la-na-funeral- protest-20110113; http://www.godhatesfags.com/fliers/20110112_AZ- Shooter-Mike-Gallagher-Radio-Exchange.pdf.

14a See See Steinberg, Air Time Instead of Funeral Protest, N. Y. Times, Oct. 6, 2006, p. A14.

15a The Court refuses to consider the epic because it was not discussed in Snyder's petition for certiorari. Ante, at 3, n. 1. The epic, however, is not a distinct claim but a piece of evidence that the jury considered in imposing liability for the claims now before this Court. The protest and the epic are parts of a single course of conduct that the jury found to constitute intentional infliction of emotional distress. See 580 F. 3d, at 225 ("[T]he Epic cannot be divorced from the general context of the funeral protest"). The Court's strange insistence that the epic "is not properly before us," ante, at 3, n. 1, means that the Court has not actually made "an independent examination of the whole record," ante, at 7 (internal quotation marks omitted). And the Court's refusal to consider the epic contrasts sharply with its willingness to take notice of Westboro's protest activities at other times and locations. See ante, at 9.

16a See 533 F. Supp. 2d 567, 577 (Md. 2008).

17a The Court affirms the decision of the Fourth Circuit with respect to petitioner's claim of intrusion upon seclusion on a ground not addressed by the Fourth Circuit. I would not reach out to decide that issue but would instead leave it for the Fourth Circuit to decide on remand. I would likewise allow the Fourth Circuit on remand to decide whether the judgment on the claim of civil conspiracy can survive in light of the ultimate disposition of the IIED and intrusion upon seclusion claims.

14


  


US Supreme Court: 1st Amendment Shields Westboro Baptist Church - The Decision as Text - Updated | 113 comments | Create New Account
Comments belong to whoever posts them. Please notify us of inappropriate comments.
Please place any corrections (if needed) here ...
Authored by: nsomos on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:10 PM EST
Please consider summarizing the correction in the posts title.
e.g. WBC -> those giving good baptists a bad name

[ Reply to This | # ]

Off Topic posts here please ...
Authored by: nsomos on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:13 PM EST
Place those posts which while off-topic for this article,
are still on-topic for Groklaw in general.

Follow the directions in 'Important Stuff' even if it pains you.

[ Reply to This | # ]

News Picks posts here please ...
Authored by: nsomos on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:17 PM EST
Pick your News to post about here. Since the news can
rapidly fall down the page (much like SCO's future)
it will be helpful if you provide a link to the article
you are commenting on, and please mention it by name,
so that we don't have to guess. Remember to set post
mode to HTML and that 'Preview' is your friend.
It can help you to avoid appearing foolish unintentionally.

[ Reply to This | # ]

Please place Comes transcriptions here
Authored by: nsomos on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:19 PM EST
Many thanks to those who help out with these.
Groklaw would not be the same without you.

[ Reply to This | # ]

SCO bankruptcy hearing posts ....
Authored by: nsomos on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:21 PM EST
Between now and the forthcoming report, there will be
things that some might wish to post about this topic.
We can keep things tidy by placing such posts here.
Remember to use 'preview' and following the 'Important Stuff'.

[ Reply to This | # ]

Ballistic seating appliance posts ... and other frivolities
Authored by: nsomos on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:26 PM EST
If you are throwing these, or counting these,
or counting those that count these, or throwing
those who count those who throw .... you know the drill.

[ Reply to This | # ]

No big surprise
Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:31 PM EST
Honestly I didn't expect anything else. It's a pretty clear free speech issue. I
know it's an old trope, but the 'I disagree with everything you say but will
defend to your death the right to say it' comes into play. I personally hate the
Westboro church, and I think most of what they say comes under 'hate speech'
(although I disagree with laws against hate speech, even if I don't approve of
it).

I do however think that laws that say 'no picketing within X feet of a funeral'
are just fine and dandy too. So long as they don't target one specific type of
picketer or speech. I don't think they're unreasonable either, nor do I think
they'll get a ruling of inhibiting free speech either (again, read the
concurrence).

MDT -- Not logged in.

[ Reply to This | # ]

And they'll know we are Christians by our love, by our love...
Authored by: artp on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 01:52 PM EST
And they'll know we are Christians by our love, by our love...

An old song from the 60s, about the time of Kumbaya.

How sad.

---
Userfriendly on WGA server outage:
When you're chained to an oar you don't think you should go down when the galley
sinks ?

[ Reply to This | # ]

US Supreme Court: 1st Amendment Shields Westboro Baptist Church - The Decision as Text
Authored by: cbc on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 02:12 PM EST
Thanks PJ. This is important to ALL Americans. And to other throughout the
world.

[ Reply to This | # ]

US Supreme Court: 1st Amendment Shields Westboro Baptist Church - The Decision as Text
Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 02:31 PM EST
Why is the word "[redacted]" redacted from the citation to Hurley?

[ Reply to This | # ]

apply WBC tactics to WBC
Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 02:32 PM EST
Someone needs to follow the WBC around with protest signs
"Christians don't hate" ...
"terrorists call for killing" ...

Like the WBC don't call for any direct actions against a specific group just
denounce all the things the WBC is apparently promoting and bring up questions
on the WBC.

You would not even have to follow the WBC around just provide a lot of info on
how to setup a counter protest. This way any place that knows it will be
targeted can setup its own grass roots message.

[ Reply to This | # ]

US Supreme Court: 1st Amendment Shields Westboro Baptist Church - The Decision as Text
Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 02:58 PM EST
And Americans wonder why they have an international reputaion of being rude with
no sence of honour.

[ Reply to This | # ]

Free speech meant for fools too
Authored by: rkhalloran on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 03:10 PM EST
While I hate to my core the grandstanding of the WBC, the reality is that their
hateful speech is protected. Of course, there's nothing that says people have to
stand by and let these self-serving pseudo-Christians rant without response.
Groups like the Patriot Riders and simply concerned citizens have shown up to
counter these hatemongers, with their own placards ("Not Today Fred")
and singing hymns to drown out the Phelps' (the "church" apparently is
primarily Phelps and his extended family). The attendees of last summer's San
Diego Comic-Con were particularly, um, inventive in their responses (Google it
for a good laugh).

As the father of a new Navy recruit, I pray I never have to go through what the
Snyders did. But the freedom our military defends includes, sadly, the freedom
to be a hateful SOB in public, even to those who make it possible and their
loved ones.

SCOX(Q) DELENDA EST!!


---
SCOX(Q) DELENDA EST!!!

------
"They who can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety
deserve neither." - Benjamin Franklin

[ Reply to This | # ]

This was the right decision
Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 03:50 PM EST
As detestable as WBC are, they still had the right to do what they did.

Sigh.

The price of free speech is free speech...

Anyone who thinks differently only has to answer the question "Why would
speech that *isn't* objectionable to *someone* need protecting in the first
place?"

Sometimes doing the right thing means you deal with filth. So be it.

Yes, it sucks that the WBC and neo-Nazis (did I just invoke Godwin's law? :))
and all the other idiots in the world are allowed to say nasty outragous things,
and to even have the extremely lack of common decency to picket a funeral, of
all things, but free speech isn't free.

This is just installment payment.

[ Reply to This | # ]

Proper way to handle WBC
Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 03:53 PM EST
You have to do it in proper Geek style : Like this

[ Reply to This | # ]

US Supreme Court: 1st Amendment Shields Westboro Baptist Church - The Decision as Text
Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 03:56 PM EST
I was contrasting this with how fast and
seemingly underhanded that it seemed that
people were trying to shut wikileaks up. There
are constitutional issues there too.

[ Reply to This | # ]

A Counterpoint
Authored by: tredman on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 04:22 PM EST

For those of you who wonder what, if anything is being done in response to this behavior by WBC, please see the web site for the Patriot Guard Riders. This is an ever-growing group of individuals that are fighting the Westboro using their own tactics, and are being welcomed by military families all across America.

These people show up in droves to simply act as a human barrier between the grieving family and the church protesters. There have been instances in the past of family members completely unaware that the protesters were even in the vicinity because of the work that PGR does. What they're doing is simple, yet effective, and like WBC, they work within the confines and context of the law. On top of everything else, the support shown by the group has overwhelmed many of the military families coping with what already is a difficult situation.

Most of the PRG are bikers, and most are former military, but all Americans are welcome to join their ranks. See their site for more info.

---
Tim
"I drank what?" - Socrates, 399 BCE

[ Reply to This | # ]

  • A Counterpoint - Authored by: Anonymous on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 05:34 PM EST
  • A Counterpoint - Authored by: Anonymous on Thursday, March 03 2011 @ 04:06 PM EST
maybe people need some help seeing Mr. Phelps
Authored by: mcinsand on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 04:41 PM EST
Anyone that has looked at our country at all can see that we have some really
big problems, and homosexuality is not one of them. Mr. Phelps is obviously
looking internally at his own demons. Do the math; he has an internal issue
with homosexuality and a focus on men in uniform. Methinks he doth protest way
too much. I do believe that people like him are the way they are out of
discomfort with their own sexuality, and they are the reason for our conflict
over peoples' sexual orientations.

mc

[ Reply to This | # ]

US Supreme Court: 1st Amendment Shields Westboro Baptist Church - The Decision as Text - Updated
Authored by: Bas Burger on Wednesday, March 02 2011 @ 08:08 PM EST
What irritates me is the wrong question being asked, while there is no doubt
that free speech is and must be important, the real question should be if people
are allowed to prepare a money grabbing scam with the help of legal traps
against grieving people that lost their family members.

The obvious answer to that question should be no in my opinion.

---
No comments...

[ Reply to This | # ]

Wow.
Authored by: Anonymous on Thursday, March 03 2011 @ 06:19 PM EST
I think Judges Alito and Breyer were totally correct in this case, and its a
shame the other Judges didn't concur with them.

Private individual's right to free speech does not give them the right to yell
"Fire" in a crowded theatre, and it should not give them the right to
yell offensive remarks at a funeral. There are plenty of other venues where
they can exercise their free speech. I think society should have the right (and
possibly even an obligation) to protect its members from such offensive conduct.

[ Reply to This | # ]

  • Wow. - Authored by: Anonymous on Thursday, March 03 2011 @ 06:43 PM EST
  • well, with Alito - Authored by: Anonymous on Thursday, March 03 2011 @ 06:52 PM EST
WBC is its own satire
Authored by: Anonymous on Friday, March 04 2011 @ 08:55 AM EST
When I first heard of the WBC and saw their site, I believed it to be a satire.
To learn that it was not intended to be a mockery has diminished my view of the
species.

My sympathies lie with their victims, but the Court is quite correct in its
judgement. The greatest ridicule that the WBC commits is against itself. Let
them wail in coventry.

[ Reply to This | # ]

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